1,088 research outputs found
Relativistic Generalization of the Incentive Trap of Interstellar Travel with Application to Breakthrough Starshot
As new concepts of sending interstellar spacecraft to the nearest stars are
now being investigated by various research teams, crucial questions about the
timing of such a vast financial and labor investment arise. If humanity could
build high-speed interstellar lightsails and reach the alpha Centauri system 20
yr after launch, would it be better to wait a few years, then take advantage of
further technology improvements to increase the speed, and arrive earlier
despite waiting? The risk of being overtaken by a future, faster probe has been
described earlier as the incentive trap. Based on 211 yr of historical data, we
find that the speed growth of human-made vehicles, from steam-driven
locomotives to Voyager 1, is much faster than previously believed, about 4.72 %
annually or a doubling every 15 yr. We derive the mathematical framework to
calculate the minimum of the wait time (t) plus travel time (tau(t)) and extend
two exponential growth law models into the relativistic regime. We show that
the minimum of t+tau(t) disappears for nearby targets. There is no use of
waiting for speed improvements once we can reach an object within about 20 yr
of travel, irrespective of the actual speed. In terms of speed, the t+tau(t)
minimum for a travel to alpha Centauri will occur once 19.6 % the speed of
light (c) become available, in agreement with the 20 % c proposed by the
Breakthrough Starshot Initiative. If interstellar travel at 20 % c can be
obtained within 45 yr from today and if the kinetic energy could be increased
at a rate consistent with the historical record, then humans can reach the ten
most nearby stars within 100 yr from today.Comment: 10 pages, 5 col. figures, 1 tabl
Analytic solutions to the maximum and average exoplanet transit depth for common stellar limb darkening laws
The depth of an exoplanetary transit in the light curve of a distant star is
commonly approximated as the squared planet-to-star radius ratio, (R_p/R_s)^2.
Stellar limb darkening, however, results in significantly deeper transits. Here
we derive analytical solutions to the overshoot of the mid-transit depth caused
by stellar limb darkening compared to the (R_p/R_s)^2 estimate for arbitrary
transit impact parameters. In turn, this allows us to compute the true
planet-to-star radius ratio from the transit depth for a given parameterization
of a limb darkening law and for a known transit impact parameter. We calculate
the maximum emerging specific stellar intensity covered by the planet in
transit and derive analytic solutions for the transit depth overshoot.
Solutions are presented for the linear, quadratic, square-root, logarithmic,
and non-linear stellar limb darkening with arbitrary transit impact parameters.
We also derive formulae to calculate the average intensity along the transit
chord, which allows us to estimate the actual transit depth (and therefore
R_p/R_s) from the mean in-transit flux. The transit depth overshoot of
exoplanets compared to the (R_p/R_s)^2 estimate increases from about 15% for A
main-sequence stars to roughly 20% for sun-like stars and some 30% for K and M
stars. The error in our analytical solutions for R_p/R_s from the small planet
approximation is orders of magnitude smaller than the uncertainties arising
from typical noise in real light curves and from the uncertain limb darkening.
Our equations can be used to predict with high accuracy the expected transit
depth of extrasolar planets. The actual planet radius can be calculated from
the measured transit depth or from the mean in-transit flux if the stellar limb
darkening can be properly parameterized and if the transit impact parameter is
known. Light curve fitting is not required.Comment: 7 pages, 3 figures (2 col, 1 b/w), published in A&
Transits of extrasolar moons around luminous giant planets
Beyond Earth-like planets, moons can be habitable, too. No exomoons have been
securely detected, but they could be extremely abundant. Young Jovian planets
can be as hot as late M stars, with effective temperatures of up to 2000 K.
Transits of their moons might be detectable in their infrared photometric light
curves if the planets are sufficiently separated ( AU) from the
stars to be directly imaged. The moons will be heated by radiation from their
young planets and potentially by tidal friction. Although stellar illumination
will be weak beyond 5 AU, these alternative energy sources could liquify
surface water on exomoons for hundreds of Myr. A Mars-mass HO-rich moon
around Pic b would have a transit depth of , in reach
of near-future technology.Comment: 2 colored figures, 4 pages, in press at A&A
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201527496
Hot Moons and Cool Stars
The exquisite photometric precision of the Kepler space telescope now puts
the detection of extrasolar moons at the horizon. Here, we firstly review
observational and analytical techniques that have recently been proposed to
find exomoons. Secondly, we discuss the prospects of characterizing potentially
habitable extrasolar satellites. With moons being much more numerous than
planets in the solar system and with most exoplanets found in the stellar
habitable zone being gas giants, habitable moons could be as abundant as
habitable planets. However, satellites orbiting planets in the habitable zones
of cool stars will encounter strong tidal heating and likely appear as hot
moons.Comment: submitted as Proceedings to the ROPACS meeting "Hot Planets and Cool
Stars" (Nov. 2012, Garching), 4 pages, 2 colored figure
How to determine an exomoon's sense of orbital motion
We present two methods to determine an exomoon's sense of orbital motion
(SOM), one with respect to the planet's circumstellar orbit and one with
respect to the planetary rotation. Our simulations show that the required
measurements will be possible with the European Extremely Large Telescope
(E-ELT). The first method relies on mutual planet-moon events during stellar
transits. Eclipses with the moon passing behind (in front of) the planet will
be late (early) with regard to the moon's mean orbital period due to the finite
speed of light. This "transit timing dichotomy" (TTD) determines an exomoon's
SOM with respect to the circumstellar motion. For the ten largest moons in the
solar system, TTDs range between 2 and 12 s. The E-ELT will enable such
measurements for Earth-sized moons around nearby stars. The second method
measures distortions in the IR spectrum of the rotating giant planet when it is
transited by its moon. This Rossiter-McLaughlin effect (RME) in the planetary
spectrum reveals the angle between the planetary equator and the moon's
circumplanetary orbital plane, and therefore unveils the moon's SOM with
respect to the planet's rotation. A reasonably large moon transiting a directly
imaged planet like beta Pic b causes an RME amplitude of almost 100 m/s, about
twice the stellar RME amplitude of the transiting exoplanet HD209458b. Both new
methods can be used to probe the origin of exomoons, that is, whether they are
regular or irregular in nature.Comment: accepted by ApJ Letters, 6 pages, 5 figures (2 color
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